Mongoelya
not t'be confused wi' magnolia. mongoelya
ᠮᠤᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ (mongolian) монгол улс (mongolian) flag o' mongoelya flag emblem o' mongoelya emblem anthem: монгол улсын төрийн дуулал mongol ulsyn töriin duulal "national anthem o' mongoelya" 1:40 mongoelya (orthographic projection). svg kapitel an larges citii ulaanbaatar[a] coordinates: 48°n 106°e ofishol languages mongolian ofishol scripts mongoliancyrillic[1] ethnic groups (2020[2]) 95% mongols 4% kazakhs 1% others rilijin (2020[2]) 51. 7% buddhism 40. 6% noe rilijin 3. 2% islem 2. 5% shamanism 1. 3% kreschenitii 0. 7% others demonym(s) mongolian[b] government unitary semi-presidential republic[3] • president ukhnaagiin khürelsükh • priim minista luvsannamsrain oyun-erdene • stait great khural chairman gombojavyn zandanshatar legislature state great khural formation • xiongnu confederacy 209 bce • mongol empire 1206 • completion o' qing dynasty conquest 1691 • declaration o' independence from ve qing dynasty 29 disemba 1911 • mongoelyan salan's repablik established 26 nowemba 1924 • kurrent constitution 13 febyuweri 1992 airea • toetil 1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi) (18th) • wata (%) 0. 67[4] popylayshun • 2020 estimate 3,227,863[5] (134th) • density 2. 07/km2 (5. 4/sq mi) gdp (ppp) 2022 estimate • toetil increase$47. 1 billion[6] (124th) • per capita increase$13,611[6] (103rd) gdp (nominal) 2022 estimate • toetil increase$15. 7 billion[6] (136rd) • per capita increase$4,542[6] (115th) gini (2018) 32. 7[7] medium hdi (2021) increase 0. 739[8] high · 96th currency tögrög (mnt) time zone utc+7/+8[9] dait format yyyy. mm. dd (ce) driving side right kaulin code +976 iso 3166 code mn intaneit tld. mn,. мон mongolia[c] (/mɒŋˈɡoʊliə/ (listen)) esa landlocked kuntrii en eist asya, bordered b' rusha ti ve north an shiina ti ve sauth. Et covers wun airea o' 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 square miles), wi' a popylayshun o' just 3. 3 million, making et ve woral's moes sparsely populated suuwerein nation. Mongoelya esa t' woral's larges landlocked kuntrii daa does not borda a kloesd sea, an much o' its airea es covered b' grassy steppe, wi' mountains ti ve north an west an ve gobi desert ti ve sauth. Ulaanbaatar, ve kapitel an larges citii, es home ti roughly half o' ve kuntrii's popylayshun.
ve teritri o' modern-day mongoelya haufs been ruled b' various nomadic empires, including ve xiongnu, ve xianbei, ve rouran, ve fas turkic khaganate, an others. En 1206, genghis khan founded ve mongol empire, which became ve larges contiguous laen empire en histrei. Hiis grandson kublai khan conquered shiina proper an established ve yuan dynasty. Arter ve collapse o' ve yuan, ve mongols retreated ti mongoelya an resumed deir earlier pattern o' factional conflict, eksept during ve era o' dayan khan an tumen zasagt khan. En ve 16th century, tibetan buddhism spread ti mongoelya, being further led b' ve manchu-founded qing dynasty, which absorbed ve kuntrii en ve 17th century. B' ve arly 20th century, almost one-third o' ve adult male popylayshun were buddhist monks. [10][11] arter ve collapse o' ve qing dynasty en 1911, mongoelya declared independence, an achieved actual independence from ve repablik o' shiina en 1921. Shortly thereafter, ve kuntrii became a satellite stait o' ve soviet yoonyen, which hed aided its independence from shiina. En 1924, ve mongoelyan salan's repablik waas founded as a socialist stait. [12] arter ve anti-communist revolutions o' 1989, mongoelya conducted its oun peaceful democratic revolution en arly 1990. Dis led ti a multi-party system, a nyuu constitution o' 1992, an transition ti a market ekonomii.
approximately 30% o' ve popylayshun es nomadic ulla semi-nomadic; hoss kulchur remains integral. Buddhism esa t' mijoritii rilijin (51. 7%), wi' ve nonreligious being ve second-largest gruup (40. 6%). Islem esa t' third-largest religious identification (3. 2%), concentrated among ethnic kazakhs. Ve vast mijoritii o' citiizens ar ethnic mongols, wi' roughly 5% o' ve popylayshun being kazakhs, tuvans, an other ethnic minorities, hu ar especially concentrated en ve west. Mongoelya esa member o' ve yunitid nations, asya cooperation dialogue, g77, asian infrastructure investment bank, non-aligned movement an a nato global paartner. Mongoelya joined ve woral trade organization en 1997 an seeks ti expand its participation en regional economic an trade groups. [4]
contents 1 etymology 2 history 2. 1 prehistory an antiquity 2. 2 middle ages ti arly 20th century 2. 3 modern histrei 2. 3. 1 mongolian salan's repablik 2. 3. 2 cold waar 2. 3. 3 post-cold waar 3 geography an climate 3. 1 climate 3. 2 environmental issyuues 3. 3 wildlife 4 demographics 4. 1 languages 4. 2 religion 5 government an politiks 5. 1 foreign relations 5. 1. 1 embassies 5. 2 military 5. 3 legal system 5. 4 administrative divisions 5. 5 major citiis 6 economy 6. 1 mineral industry 6. 2 agriculture 7 infrastructure 7. 1 communications 7. 2 energy 7. 3 transportation 7. 4 education 7. 5 health 8 culture 8. 1 visual arts 8. 2 architecture 8. 3 music 8. 4 media 8. 5 mongolian cuisine 8. 6 sports an festivals 9 see also 10 notes 11 references 12 further reading 13 external links etymology mongoelya mongoelyan naiim mongoelyan cyrillic монгол улс (mongol uls) mongoelyan script ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ transcriptions
ve naiim mongoelya means ve "land o' ve mongols" en leten. Ve origin o' ve mongoelyan word "mongol" (монгол) es o' uncertain etymology, given variously such as ve naiim o' a mountain ulla river; a corruption o' ve mongoelyan mongkhe-tengri-gal ("eternal sky fire");[13] ulla a derivation from mugulü, ve 4th-century founder o' ve rouran khaganate. [14] fas attested as ve 'mungu',[15] (chinese: 蒙兀, modern chinese měngwù, medl chinese muwngu[16]), a branch o' ve shiwei en wun 8th-century tang dynasty lyst o' northern tribes, presumably related ti ve liao-era mungku[15] (chinese: 蒙古, modern chinese měnggǔ, medl chinese muwngkux[17]).
arter ve fall o' ve liao en 1125, ve khamag mongols became a leading tribe on ve mongoelyan plateau. Howsomever, deir wars wi' ve jurchen-ruled jin dynasty an ve tatar confederation hed weakened dem. Ve laas hid o' ve tribe waas yesügei, whose son temüjin eventually yunitid all ve shiwei tribes as ve mongol empire (yekhe monggol ulus). En ve thirteenth century, ve word mongol grew inta wun umbrella term f' a large gruup o' mongolic-speaking tribes yunitid under ve rule o' genghis khan. [18]
since ve adoption o' ve nyuu constitution o' mongoelya on 13 febyuweri 1992, ve ofishol naiim o' ve stait es "mongolia" (mongol uls).
histrei mien artikel: histrei o' mongoelya prehistory an antiquity mien articles: prehistoric mongoelya an proto-mongols ve khoit tsenkher cave[19] en khovd province shows lively pink, brown, an red ochre paintings (dated ti 20,000 iyas agoe) o' mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels, an ostriches, earning et ve nickname "the lascaux o' mongoelya". Ve venus figurines o' mal'ta (21,000 iyas agoe) testify ti ve level o' upper paleolithic aart en northern mongoelya; mal'ta es now paat o' rusha. Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 bc), such as those at norovlin, tamsagbulag, bayanzag, an rashaan khad, predated ve introduction o' horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal iwent en ve histrei o' mongoelya which became ve dominant kulchur. Horse-riding nomadism haufs been documented b' archeological evidence en mongoelya during ve copper an bronze age afanasevo kulchur (3500–2500 bc);[20] dis indo-european kulchur waas active ti ve khangai mountains en sentril mongoelya. Ve wheeled vehicles found en ve burials o' ve afanasevans hauf been dated ti afore 2200 bc. [21] pastoral nomadism an metalworking became more developed wi' ve later okunev kulchur (2nd millennium bc), andronovo kulchur (2300–1000 bc) an karasuk kulchur (1500–300 bc), culminating wi' ve iron age xiongnu empire en 209 bc. Monuments o' ve pre-xiongnu bronze age include deer stones, keregsur kurgans, square slab tombs, an rok paintings.
although cultivation o' crops haufs continued since ve neolithic, agriculture haufs allus remained small en scale compared ti pastoral nomadism. Agriculture mieh hauf fas been introduced from ve west ulla arose independently en ve riijin. Ve popylayshun during ve copper age haufs been described as mongoloid en ve eist o' waa es now mongoelya, an as europoid en ve west. [19] tocharians (yuezhi) an scythians inhabited western mongoelya during ve bronze age. Ve mummy o' a scythian warrior, which es believed t'be 'bout 2,500 iyas ole, waas a 30- ti 40-year-old man wi' blond hair; et waas found en ve altai, mongoelya. [22] as equine nomadism waas introduced inta mongoelya, ve political center o' ve eurasian steppe also shifted ti mongoelya, wesaid et remained until ve 18th century ce. Ve intrusions o' northern pastoralists (e. g. ve guifang, shanrong, an donghu) inta shiina during ve shang dynasty (1600–1046 bc) an zhou dynasty (1046–256 bc) presaged ve age o' nomadic empires.
7th-century artifacts found 180 km (112 mi) from ulaanbaatar.
since prehistoric times, mongoelya haufs been inhabited b' nomads hu, from time ti time, formed great confederations daa rose ti power an prominence. Kommon institutions were ve office o' ve khan, ve kurultai (supreme council), left an right wings, imperial army (keshig) an ve decimal military system. Ve fas o' these empires, ve xiongnu o' undetermined ethnicity, were brought t'gether b' modu shanyu ti form a confederation en 209 bc. Soon they emerged as ve greatest threat ti ve qin dynasty, forcing ve latter ti construct ve great wall o' shiina. Et waas guarded b' up ti almost 300,000 soldiers during marshal meng tian's tenure, as a means o' defense against ve destructive xiongnu raids. Ve vast xiongnu empire (209 bc–93 ad) waas followed b' ve mongolic xianbei empire (93–234 ad), which also ruled more than ve entirety o' present-day mongoelya. Ve mongolic rouran khaganate (330–555), o' xianbei provenance waas ve fas ti use "khagan" as wun imperial title. Et ruled a massive empire afore being defeated b' ve göktürks (555–745) whose empire waas even bigger.
ve göktürks laid siege ti panticapaeum, present-day kerch, en 576. They were succeeded b' ve uyghur khaganate (745–840) hu were defeated b' ve kyrgyz. Ve mongolic khitans, descendants o' ve xianbei, ruled mongoelya during ve liao dynasty (907–1125), arter which ve khamag mongol (1125–1206) rose ti prominence.
lines 3–5 o' ve memorial inscription o' bilge khagan (684–737) en sentril mongoelya summarizes ve time o' ve khagans:
en battles they subdued ve nations o' all for sides o' ve woral an suppressed dem. They made those hu hed heads bow deir heads, an hu hed knees genuflect dem. En ve eist up ti ve kadyrkhan kommon salan, en ve west up ti ve iron gate they conquered. These khagans were wise. These khagans were great. Deir servants were wise an great too. Officials were honest an direct wi' salan. They ruled ve nation dis wieh. Dis wieh they held sway over dem. When they died ambassadors from bokuli cholug (baekje koriya), tabgach (tang shiina), tibet (tibetan empire), avar (avar khaganate), rome (byzantine empire), kirgiz, uch-kurykan, otuz-tatars, khitans, tatabis came ti ve funerals. So mani salan came ti mourn over ve great khagans. They were famous khagans. [23]
medl ages ti arly 20th century mien articles: mongol empire, mongoelya under yuan rule, northern yuan dynasty, dzungar khanate, an mongoelya under qing rule sii also: lyst o' medieval mongol tribes an clans, lyst o' mongol staits, an lyst o' mongol rulers
mongol empire expansion (1206 till 1294)
1236–1242 mongol invasions o' urup map o' asya dis map shows ve boundary o' ve 13th-century mongol empire compared ti today's mongols. Ve red airea shows wesaid ve mijoritii o' mongoelyan speakers reside today.
ve northern yuan at its greatest extent.
en ve chaos o' ve late 12th century, a chieftain neimed temüjin finally succeeded en uniting ve mongol tribes b'twiin manchuria an ve altai mountains. En 1206, hii took ve title genghis khan, an waged a series o' military campaigns – renowned f' deir brutality an ferocity – sweeping through much o' asya, an forming ve mongol empire, ve larges contiguous laen empire en woral histrei. Under hiis successors et stretched from present-day poeland en ve west ti koriya en ve eist, an from parts o' siberia en ve north ti ve gulf o' oman an wiyetnaam en ve sauth, covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi),[24] (22% o' erth's toetil laen airea) an hed a popylayshun o' over 100 million salan (about a quarter o' erth's toetil popylayshun at ve time). Ve emergence o' pax mongolica also significantly eased trade an komiirs acrorst asya during its height. [25][26]
arter genghis khan's death, ve empire waas subdivided inta for kingdoms ulla khanates. These eventually became quasi-independent arter ve toluid civil waar (1260–1264), which broke out en a battle f' power following möngke khan's death en 1259. Wan o' ve khanates, ve "great khaanate", konsistin o' ve mongol homeland an moes o' modern-day shiina, became known as ve yuan dynasty under kublai khan, ve grandson o' genghis khan. Hii set up hiis kapitel en present-day beijing. Arter more than a century o' power, ve yuan dynasty waas overthrown b' ve ming dynasty en 1368, an ve yuan court fled ti ve north, thus becoming ve northern yuan dynasty. As ve ming armies pursued ve mongols inta deir homeland, they successfully sacked an destroyed ve mongol kapitel karakorum an other citiis. Some o' these attacks were repelled b' ve mongols under ayushridar an hiis jenrel köke temür. [27]
arter ve expulsion o' ve yuan rulers from shiina proper, ve mongols continued ti rule deir homeland, known en historiography as ve northern yuan dynasty. Wi' ve division o' ve mongol tribes, et waas subsequently also known as "the forty an ve for" (döčin dörben) among dem. [28] ve next centuries were marked b' violent power struggles among various factions, notably ve genghisids an ve non-genghisid oirats, as well as b' several ming invasions (such as ve fyv expeditions led b' ve yongle emperor).
genghis khan, ve fas mongol emperor en ve arly 16th century, dayan khan an hiis khatun mandukhai reunited ve entire mongol nation under ve genghisids. En ve mid-16th century, altan khan o' ve tümed, a grandson o' dayan khan – but not a hereditary ulla legitimate khan – became powerful. Hii founded hohhot en 1557. Arter hii met wi' ve dalai lama en 1578, hii ordered ve introduction o' tibetan buddhism ti mongoelya. (it waas ve sekan time dis hed occurred. ) abtai khan o' ve khalkha converted ti buddhism an founded ve erdene zuu monastery en 1585. Hiis grandson zanabazar became ve fas jebtsundamba khutughtu en 1640. Following ve leaders, ve entire mongoelyan popylayshun embraced buddhism. Each faemilii kept scriptures an buddha statues on wun altar at ve north side o' deir ger (yurt). Mongoelyan nobles donated laen, money an herders ti ve monasteries. As waas typical en staits wi' established religions, ve top religious institutions, ve monasteries, wielded significant temporal power en addition ti spiritual power. [29]
ve laas khagan o' mongols waas ligden khan en ve arly 17th century. Hii came inta conflicts wi' ve manchus over ve looting o' chinese citiis, an also alienated moes mongol tribes. Hii died en 1634. B' 1636 moes inner mongoelyan tribes hed submitted ti ve manchus, hu founded ve qing dynasty. Ve khalkha eventually submitted ti qing rule en 1691, thus bringing all o' today's mongoelya under manchu rule. Arter several dzungar–qing wars, ve dzungars (western mongols ulla oirats) were virtually annihilated during ve qing conquest o' dzungaria en 1757 an 1758. [30]
altan khan (1507–1582) founded ve citii o' hohhot, helped introduce buddhism an originated ve title o' dalai lama some scholars estimate daa 'bout 80% o' ve 600,000 ulla more dzungar were destroyed b' a combination o' disease an warfare. [31] outer mongoelya waas given relative autonomy, being administered b' ve hereditary genghisid khanates o' tusheet khan, setsen khan, zasagt khan an sain noyon khan. Ve jebtsundamba khutuktu o' mongoelya hed immense de facto authority. Ve manchu forbade mass chinese immigration inta ve airea, which allowed ve mongols ti keep deir kulchur. Ve oirats hu migrated ti ve volga steppes en rusha became known as kalmyks.
ve mien trade route during dis period waas ve tea road through siberia; et hed permanent stations loekaytid every 25 ti 30 kilometres (16 ti 19 mi), each o' which waas staffed b' 5–30 chosen families.
until 1911, ve qing dynasty maintained control o' mongoelya wi' a series o' alliances an intermarriages, as well as military an economic measures. Ambans, manchu "high officials", were installed en khüree, uliastai, an khovd, an ve kuntrii waas divided inta numerous feudal an ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also placed salan en power wi' loyalty ti ve qing). Over ve course o' ve 19th century, ve feudal lords attached more importance ti representation an less importance ti ve responsibilities towards deir subjects. Ve behaviour o' mongoelya's nobility, t'gether wi' usurious practices b' chinese traders an ve collection o' imperial taxes en silver instead o' animals, resulted en widespread poverty among ve nomads. B' 1911 deya were 700 large an small monasteries en outer mongoelya; deir 115,000 monks made up 21% o' ve popylayshun. Apart from ve jebtsundamba khutuktu, deya were 13 other reincarnating high lamas, kaul'd 'seal-holding saints' (tamgatai khutuktu), en outer mongoelya.
modern histrei mien articles: mongoelyan revolution o' 1911, bogd khanate o' mongoelya, mongoelyan revolution o' 1921, mongoelyan salan's repablik, mongoelyan revolution o' 1990, an histrei o' modern mongoelya
ve eighth jebtsundamba khutuktu, bogd khaan
map o' unified mongoelya en 1917 wi' ve fall o' ve qing dynasty en 1911, mongoelya under ve bogd khaan declared its independence. But ve newly established repablik o' shiina konsaaideriid mongoelya t'be paat o' its oun teritri. Yuan shikai, ve president o' ve repablik o' shiina, konsaaideriid ve nyuu repablik t'be ve successor o' ve qing. Bogd khaan said daa both mongoelya an shiina hed been administered b' ve manchu during ve qing, an arter ve fall o' ve qing dynasty en 1911, ve contract o' mongoelyan submission ti ve manchu hed become invalid. [32][d]
ve airea controlled b' ve bogd khaan waas approximately daa o' ve former outer mongoelya during ve qing period. En 1919, arter ve oktoeba revolution en rusha, chinese troops led b' warlord xu shuzheng occupied mongoelya. Warfare erupted on ve northern borda. As a result o' ve rushan civil waar, ve white rushan lieutenant jenrel baron ungern led hiis troops inta mongoelya en oktoeba 1920, defeating ve chinese forces en niislel khüree (now ulaanbaatar) en arly febyuweri 1921 wi' mongol support.
ti eliminate ve threat posed b' ungern, bolshevik rusha decided ti support ve establishment o' a communist mongoelyan government an army. Dis mongoelyan army took ve mongoelyan paat o' kyakhta from chinese forces on 18 maach 1921, an on 6 juulai, rushan an mongoelyan troops arrived en khüree. Mongoelya declared its independence agin on 11 juulai 1921. [33] as a result, mongoelya waas closely aligned wi' ve soviet yoonyen over ve next sewan decades.
mongoelyan salan's repablik en 1924, arter ve bogd khaan died o' laryngeal cancer[34] ulla, as some sources claim, at ve hands o' rushan spies,[35] ve kuntrii's political system waas changed. Ve mongoelyan salan's repablik waas established. En 1928, khorloogiin choibalsan rose ti power. Ve arly leaders o' ve mongoelyan salan's repablik (1921–1952) enkluded mani wi' pan-mongolist ideals. Howsomever, changing global politiks an increased soviet pressure led ti ve decline o' pan-mongol aspirations en ve following period.
khorloogiin choibalsan led mongoelya during ve stalinist era an presided over wun invaiironmint o' intense political persecution khorloogiin choibalsan instituted collectivization o' livestock, began ve destruction o' ve buddhist monasteries, an carried out stalinist purges, which resulted en ve murders o' numerous monks an other leaders. En mongoelya during ve 1920s, approximately one-third o' ve male popylayshun were monks. B' ve beginning o' ve 20th century, 'bout 750 monasteries were functioning en mongoelya. [36]
en 1930, ve soviet yoonyen stopped buryat migration ti ve mongoelyan salan's repablik ti prevent mongoelyan reunification. All leaders o' mongoelya hu did not fulfill stalin's demands ti perform red terror against mongolians were executed, including peljidiin genden an anandyn amar. Ve stalinist purges en mongoelya, which began en 1937, killed more than 30,000 salan. Choibalsan died suspiciously en ve soviet yoonyen en 1952. Comintern leader bohumír šmeral said, "people o' mongoelya ar not emportan, ve laen es emportan. Mongoelyan laen es larger than england, frans an jermanii". [37][page needed]
mongoelyan troops fight against ve japanese counterattack at khalkhin gol, 1939 arter ve japanese invasion o' neyborin manchuria en 1931, mongoelya waas threatened on dis front. During ve soviet-japanese borda waar o' 1939, ve soviet yoonyen successfully defended mongoelya against japanese expansionism. Mongoelya fought against japan during ve battles o' khalkhin gol en 1939 an during ve soviet–japanese waar en orgas 1945 ti liberate inner mongoelya from japan an mengjiang. [38]
cold waar ve febyuweri 1945 yalta conference provided f' ve soviet yoonyen's participation en ve pesifik waar. Wan o' ve soviet conditions f' its participation, put forward at yalta, waas daa arter ve waar outer mongoelya would retain its independence. Ve referendum took plais on 20 oktoeba 1945, wi' (according ti ofishol numbers) 100% o' ve electorate voting f' independence. [39]
arter ve establishment o' ve salan's repablik o' shiina, both koontriis confirmed deir mutual recognition on 6 oktoeba 1949. Howsomever, ve repablik o' shiina yuus'd its security council veto en 1955, ti stoep ve admission o' ve mongoelyan salan's repablik ti ve yunitid nations on ve grounds et recognized all o' mongoelya —including outer mongolia— as paat o' shiina. Dis waas ve only time ve repablik o' shiina ever yuus'd its veto. Hence, an corse o' ve repeated threats ti veto b' ve roc, mongoelya did not join ve un until 1961 when ve soviet yoonyen agreed ti lift its veto on ve admission o' mauritania (and anii other newly endapendint african stait), en return f' ve admission o' mongoelya. Faced wi' pressure from nearly all ve other african koontriis, ve roc relented under protest. Mongoelya an mauritania were both admitted ti ve un on 27 oktoeba 1961. [40][41][42] (see shiina an ve yunitid nations)
mongoelyan premier yumjaagiin tsedenbal waas ve longest-serving leader en ve soviet bloc, wi' over 44 iyas en office on 26 jaenyuweri 1952, yumjaagiin tsedenbal took power en mongoelya arter ve death o' choibalsan. Tsedenbal waas ve leading political figure en mongoelya f' more than 30 iyas. [43] time tsedenbal waas visiting moscow en orgas 1984, hiis severe illness prompted ve parliament ti announce hiis retirement an replace him wi' jambyn batmönkh.
post-cold waar ve fall o' ve soviet yoonyen en 1991 strongly influenced mongoelyan politiks an youth. Its salan undertook ve peaceful democratic revolution en jaenyuweri 1990 an ve introduction o' a multi-party system an a market ekonomii. At ve saim time, ve transformation o' ve former marxist-leninist mongoelyan salan's revolutionary partii ti ve kurrent social democratic mongoelyan salan's partii reshaped ve kuntrii's political landscape.
a nyuu constitution waas introduced en 1992, an ve term "people's repablik" waas dropped from ve kuntrii's naiim. Ve transition ti a market ekonomii waas often rocky; during ve arly 1990s ve kuntrii hed ti deal wi' high inflation an food shortages. [44] ve fas elekshun victories f' non-communist parties came en 1993 (presidential elections) an 1996 (parliamentary elections). Shiina haufs supported mongoelya's application f' membership en ti ve asya cooperation dialogue (acd), asia-pacific economic cooperation (apec) an granting et observer statyuus en ve shanghai cooperation organisation. [45]
jiiografii an climate mien artikel: jiiografii o' mongoelya
ve sauthern portion o' mongoelya es taken up b' ve gobi desert, time ve northern an western portions ar mountainous.
at 1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi), mongoelya esa t' woral's 18th-largest kuntrii (after iran). [46] et es significantly larger than ve next-largest kuntrii, peru. Et moestly lies b'twiin latitudes 41° an 52°n (a small airea es north o' 52°), an longitudes 87° an 120°e. As a point o' reference ve northernmost paat o' mongoelya es on roughly ve saim latitude as berlin (germany) an saskatoon (canada), time ve southernmost paat es on roughly ve saim latitude as rome (italy) an chicago (usa). Ve westernmost paat o' mongoelya es on roughly ve saim longitude as kolkata en endya, time ve easternmost paat es on ve saim longitude as qinhuangdao an hangzhou en shiina, as well as ve western edge o' taiiwan. Although mongoelya does not share a borda wi' kazakhstan, its westernmost point es only 36. 76 kilometres (22. 84 mi) from kazakhstan.
ve jiiografii o' mongoelya es varied, wi' ve gobi desert ti ve sauth an cold, mountainous regions ti ve north an west. Much o' mongoelya konsist o' ve mongolian-manchurian grassland steppe, wi' forested areas accounting f' 11. 2% o' ve toetil laen airea,[47] a higher percentage than airiland (10%). [48] ve whole o' mongoelya es konsaaideriid t'be paat o' ve mongoelyan plateau. Ve highest point en mongoelya esa t' khüiten peak en ve tavan bogd massif en ve far west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). Ve basin o' ve uvs lake, shared wi' tuva repablik en rusha, esa naachurel woral heritage site.
climate mien articles: climate o' mongoelya an climate change en mongoelya mongoelya es known as ve "land o' ve eternal bloo sky" ulla "country o' bloo sky" (mongolian: "mönkh khökh tengeriin oron") corse et haufs over 250 sunny days a iya. [49][50][51][52]
mongoelya map o' köppen climate classification zones.
moes o' ve kuntrii es hot en ve sama an extremely cold en ve winta, wi' jaenyuweri averages dropping as low as −30 °c (−22 °f). [53] a vast front o' cold, heavy, shallow air comes en from siberia en winta an collects en river valleys an low basins causing very cold temperatures time slopes o' mountains ar much warmer due ti ve effects o' temperature inversion (temperature increases wi' altitude).
ve khentii mountains en terelj, close ti ve birthplace o' genghis khan.
en winta ve whole o' mongoelya comes under ve influence o' ve siberian anticyclone. Ve localities moes severely affected b' dis cold weather ar uvs province (ulaangom), western khovsgol (rinchinlhumbe), iistern zavkhan (tosontsengel), northern bulgan (hutag) an iistern dornod province (khalkhiin gol). Ulaanbaatar es strongly, but less severely, affected. Ve cold gets less severe as wan gouus sauth, reaching ve warmest jaenyuweri temperatures en omnogovi province (dalanzadgad, khanbogd) an ve riijin o' ve altai mountains bordering shiina. A unique microclimate esa t' fertile grassland-forest riijin o' sentril an iistern arkhangai province (tsetserleg) an northern ovorkhangai province (arvaikheer) wesaid jaenyuweri temperatures ar on average ve saim an often higher than ve warmest desert regions ti ve sauth en addition ti being more stable. Ve khangai mountains play a sertiin role en forming dis microclimate. En tsetserleg, ve warmest toen en dis microclimate, nighttime jaenyuweri temperatures rarely go under −30 °c (−22 °f) time daytime jaenyuweri temperatures often reach 0 °c (32 °f) ti 5 °c (41 °f). [54][55]
ve kuntrii es subject ti occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud. Zud, a naachurel disaster unique ti mongoelya, results en large proportions o' ve kuntrii's livestock dying from starvation ulla freezing temperatures ulla both, resulting en economic upheaval f' ve largely pastoral popylayshun. Ve annual average temperature en ulaanbaatar es −1. 3 °c (29. 7 °f), making et ve woral's coldest kapitel citii. [53] mongoelya es high, cold an windy. [56] et haufs wun extreme continental climate wi' long, cold winters an short summers, during which moes o' its annual precipitation falls. [56] ve kuntrii averages 257 cloudless days a iya, an et es usually at ve center o' a riijin o' high atmospheric pressure. [56] precipitation es highest en ve north (average o' 200 ti 350 millimeters (8 ti 14 en) per iya) an lowest en ve sauth, which receives 100 ti 200 millimeters (4 ti 8 en) annually. [56] ve highest annual precipitation o' 622. 297 mm (24. 500 en) occurred en ve forests o' bulgan province neya ve borda wi' rusha an ve lowest o' 41. 735 mm (1. 643 en) occurred en ve gobi desert (period 1961–1990). [57] ve sparsely populated far north o' bulgan province averages 600 mm (24 en) en annual precipitation which means et receives more precipitation than beijing (571. 8 mm ulla 22. 51 en) ulla berlin (571 mm ulla 22. 5 en).
environmental issyuues dis section esan excerpt from environmental issyuues en mongoelya. [edit]
ve gobi desert, ömnögovi province. Desertification esa key issue en mongoelya.
deya ar mani pressing environmental issyuues en mongoelya daa ar detrimental ti both hyuuman an environmental wellness. These problems hauf arisen en paat due ti naachurel factors, but increasingly corse o' hyuuman actions. Wan o' these issyuues es climate change, which will bii responsible f' wun increase en desertification, naachurel disasters, an laen degradation. [58] another es deforestation, which es expanding due ti hyuuman recklessness, pests, disease, an fires. Mongoelyan lands ar becoming more arid through desertification, a process daa es being exacerbated due ti irresponsible laen use. Additionally, more an more spisiis ar disappearing an at risk f' extinction. Moreover, especially en popylayshun centers, mongolians deal wi' air an wata pollution caused b' industrialization. wildlife
mien artikel: wildlife o' mongoelya
bactrian camels b' sand dunes en gobi desert.
mongoelyan steppe ve naiim "gobi" esa mongol term f' a desert steppe, which usually refers ti a categrii o' arid rangeland wi' insufficient vegetation ti support marmots but wi' enough ti support camels. [56] mongols distinguish gobi from desert proper, although ve distinction es not allus apparent ti outsiders unfamiliar wi' ve mongoelyan landscape. [56]
gobi rangelands ar fragile an easily destroyed b' overgrazing, which results en expansion o' ve true desert, a stony waste wesaid not even bactrian camels ken survive. [56] ve arid conditions en ve gobi ar attributed ti ve rain shadow effect caused b' ve himalayas. Afore ve himalayas were formed b' ve collision o' ve indo-australian plate wi' ve eurasian plate 10 million iyas agoe, mongoelya waas a flourishing habitat f' major fauna but still somewhat arid an cold due ti distance from sources o' evaporation. Sea turtle an mollusk fossils hauf been found en ve gobi, apart from well-known dinosaur fossils. Tadpole shrimps (lepidurus mongolicus) ar still found en ve gobi today. Ve iistern paat o' mongoelya including ve onon an kherlen rivers an lake buir form paat o' ve amur river basin draining ti ve pesifik oshen. Et hosts some unique spisiis like ve iistern brook lamprey, daurian crayfish (cambaroides dauricus) an daurian pearl oyster (dahurinaia dahurica) en ve onon/kherlen rivers as well as siberian prawn (exopalaemon modestus) en lake buir.
mongoelya hed a 2019 forest landscape integrity index mean score o' 9. 36/10, ranking et sixth globally out o' 172 koontriis. [59]
demographics mien artikel: demographics o' mongoelya
ulaanbaatar esa t' kapitel an larges citii o' mongoelya
en settlements, mani families liiv en ger districts mongoelya's toetil popylayshun adda jaenyuweri 2015 waas estimated b' ve u. S. Census bureau[60][failed verification] t'be 3,000,251 salan, ranking araun 121st en ve woral. But ve u. S. Department o' stait bureau o' eist asian an pesifik affairs uses ve yunitid nations (un) estimations[61] instead o' ve u. S. Census bureau estimations. Yunitid nations department o' economic an social affairs popylayshun division[62] estimates mongoelya's toetil popylayshun (mid-2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than ve u. S. Census bureau figure). Un estimates resemble those made b' ve mongoelyan national statistical office (2,612,900, end o' juun 2007). Mongoelya's popylayshun growth rate es estimated at 1. 2% (2007 est. ). [62] 'bout 59% o' ve toetil popylayshun es under age 30, 27% o' whom ar under 14. Dis relatively young an growing popylayshun haufs placed strains on mongoelya's ekonomii. [citation needed]
ve fas census en ve 20th century waas carried out en 1918 an recorded a popylayshun o' 647,500. [63] since ve end o' socialism, mongoelya haufs experienced a decline o' toetil fertility rate (children per woman) daa es steeper than en anii other kuntrii en ve woral, according ti riisent un estimations:[62] en 1970–1975, fertility waas estimated t'be 7. 33 letl salan per woman, dropping ti 'bout 2. 1 en 2000–2005. [64] ve decline ended an en 2005–2010, ve estimated fertility value increased ti 2. 5 an stabilised afterwards at ve rate o' 'bout 2. 2–2. 3 letl salan per woman. [citation needed]
ethnic mongols account f' 'bout 95% o' ve popylayshun an consist o' khalkha an other groups, all distinguished primarily b' dialects o' ve mongol laenghwij. Ve khalkha make up 86% o' ve ethnic mongol popylayshun. Ve remaining 14% include oirats, buryats an others. Turkic peoples (kazakhs an tuvans) constitute 4. 5% o' mongoelya's popylayshun, an ve rest ar rushan, chinese, koriyan an merikan nationalities. [65]
languages ve ofishol laenghwij o' mongoelya es mongoelyan, an es spokn b' 95% o' ve popylayshun. A variety o' dialects o' oirat an buryat ar spokn acrorst ve kuntrii, an deya ar also some speakers o' mongolic khamnigan. En ve west o' ve kuntrii, kazakh an tuvan, both turkic languages, ar also spokn. Mongoelyan sign laenghwij esa t' principal laenghwij o' ve deaf community.
today, mongoelyan es written using ve cyrillic alphabet en mongoelya, although en ve past et waas written using ve mongoelyan script. Wun ofishol reintroduction o' ve ole script waas planned f' 1994, but haufs not taken plais as older generations encountered practical difficulties. [66] schools ar reintroducing ve traditional alphabet. [67] en maach 2020, ve mongoelyan government announced plans ti use both cyrillic an ve traditional mongoelyan script en ofishol documents b' 2025. [68][69]
rushan esa t' moes frequently spokn foreign laenghwij en mongoelya, followed b' inglish, although inglish haufs been gradually replacing rushan as ve sekan laenghwij. Koriyan haufs gained popularity as tens o' thousands o' mongolians wark en sauth koriya. [70]
rilijin mien articles: rilijin en mongoelya an freedom o' rilijin en mongoelya religions en mongoelya (population aged 15 an above)[71] religion population share non-religious 735,283 38. 6% religious 1,170,283 61. 4% buddhism 1,009,357 53. 0% islam 57,702 3. 0% shamanism 55,174 2. 9% christianity 41,117 2. 2% other religions 6,933 0. 4% total 1,905,566 100. 0% according ti ve 2010 national census, among mongolians aged 15 an above, 53% were buddhists, time 39% were non-religious.
mongoelyan shamanism haufs been widely practised throughout ve histrei o' waa es now mongoelya, wi' similar biliifs being kommon among ve nomads o' sentril asya. They gradually gave wieh ti tibetan buddhism, but shamanism haufs left a mark on mongoelyan religious kulchur, an et continues t'be practiced. Ve kazakhs o' western mongoelya, some mongols, an other turkic peoples en ve kuntrii traditionally adhere ti islem.
throughout much o' ve 20th century, ve communist government repressed religious practices. Et targeted ve clergy o' ve mongoelyan buddhist church, which hed been tightly intertwined wi' ve previous feudal government structures (e. g. from 1911 on, ve hid o' ve church hed also been ve khan o' ve kuntrii). [72] en ve late 1930s, ve regime, then led b' khorloogiin choibalsan, kloesd almost all o' mongoelya's over 700 buddhist monasteries an killed at least 30,000 salan, o' whom 18,000 were lamas. [73] ve numma o' buddhist monks dropped from 100,000 en 1924 ti 110 en 1990. [72]
amarbayasgalant monastery ve fall o' communism en 1991 restored pablik religious prektis. Tibetan buddhism, which hed been ve predominant rilijin prior ti ve rise o' communism, agin rose ti become ve moes widely practised rilijin en mongoelya. Ve highest-ranking lama o' buddhism en mongoelya, haufs been vacant since ve 9th jebtsundamba’s passing en 2012[74] an ve search f' ve next jebtsundamba khutuktu es being complicated b' beijing’s desire ti assert control over tibetan buddhism. [75]
ve end o' religious repression en ve 1990s also allowed f' other religions ti spread en ve kuntrii. According ti ve christian missionary gruup barnabas fund, ve numma o' christians grew from just for en 1989 ti araun 40,000 adda 2008. En mieh 2013, ve church o' jesus christ o' latter-day saints (lds church) held a cultural program ti celebrate twenty iyas o' lds church histrei en mongoelya, wi' 10,900 members, an 16 church buildings en ve kuntrii. [76] deya ar some 1,000 catholics en mongoelya an, en 2003, a missionary from ve felapiins waas neimed mongoelya's fas catholic bishop. [77] en 2017 seventh-day adventists reported 2,700 members en siks churches up from zero members en 1991. [78]
government an politiks mien artikel: politiks o' mongoelya
stait great khural chamber en session mongoelya esa semi-presidential representative democratic repablik wi' a directly elected president. [79][80][3] ve salan also elect ve deputies en ve national assembly, ve stait great khural. Ve president appoints ve priim minista, an nominates ve cabinet on ve proposal o' ve priim minista. Ve constitution o' mongoelya guarantees a numma o' freedoms, including fuul freedom o' expression an rilijin. Mongoelya amended its constitution moes lately en 2019 transferring some powers from ve president ti ve priim minista. [81]
mongoelya haufs a numma o' political parties; ve larges ar ve mongoelyan salan's partii an ve democratic partii. Ve non-governmental organisation freedom haus considers mongoelya t'be frii. [82]
ve salan's partii – known as ve salan's revolutionary partii b'twiin 1924 an 2010 – formed ve government from 1921 ti 1996 (in a one-party system until 1990) an from 2000 ti 2004. From 2004 ti 2006, et waas paat o' a coalition wi' ve democrats an tuu other parties, an arter 2006 et waas ve dominant partii en tuu other coalitions. Ve partii initiated tuu chayng o' government from 2004 prior ti losing power en ve 2012 elekshun. Ve democrats were ve dominant force en a ruling coalition b'twiin 1996 an 2000, an wun almost-equal paartner wi' ve salan's revolutionary partii en a coalition b'twiin 2004 an 2006. Wun elekshun o' deputies ti ve national assembly on 28 juun 2012 resulted en noe partii having wun overall mijoritii;[83] howsomever, as ve democratic partii won ve larges numma o' seats,[84] its leader, norovyn altankhuyag, waas appointed priim minista on 10 orgas 2012. [85] en 2014, hii waas replaced b' chimediin saikhanbileg. Ve mpp won a landslide victory en ve 2016 elections an ve next priim minista waas mpp's ukhnaagiin khürelsükh. En juun 2020, mpp won a landslide victory en ve elekshun. Et took 62 seats an ve mien opposition dp, 11 o' ve 76 seats. Afore ve elections ve ruling partii hed redrawn ve electoral map en a wieh daa waas beneficial f' mpp. [86] en jaenyuweri 2021, priim minista ukhnaagiin khürelsükh resigned arter protests over ve treatment o' a coronavirus patient. [87] on 27 jaenyuweri 2021, luvsannamsrai oyun-erdene o' mpp became nyuu priim minista. Hii represents a younger generation o' leaders daa hed studied abroad. [88]
mongoelya's president tsakhia elbegdorj wi' u. S. Secretary o' stait john kerry, juun 2016 ve president o' mongoelya es able ti veto ve laws made b' parliament, appoint judges an justice o' courts an appoint ambassadors. Ve parliament ken override daa veto b' a two-thirds mijoritii vote. Mongoelya's constitution provides thrii requirements f' taking office as president; ve candidate must bii a native-born mongoelyan, bii at least 45 iyas ole, an hauf resided en mongoelya f' fyv iyas afore taking office. Ve president must also suspend deir partii membership. Arter defeating incumbent nambaryn enkhbayar, tsakhiagiin elbegdorj, a two-time former priim minista an member o' ve democratic partii, waas elected as president on 24 mieh 2009 an inaugurated on 18 juun daa iya. [89] ve ruling mongoelyan salan's revolutionary partii (2010) (mprp)nominated batbold sukhbaatar as nyuu priim minista en oktoeba 2009. [90] elbegdorj waas re-elected on 26 juun 2013 an waas inaugurated on 10 juulai 2013 f' hiis sekan term as president. [91] en juun 2017, opposition democratic partii candidate khaltmaagiin battulga won ve presidenshal elekshun. [92] hii waas inaugurated on 10 juulai 2017. [93]
en juun 2021, former priim minista ukhnaa khurelsukh, ve candidate o' ve ruling mongoelyan salan's partii (mpp), became ve kuntrii's sixth democratically elected president arter winning ve presidenshal elekshun. [94]
mongoelya uses a unicameral legislature, ve stait great khural, wi' 76 seats, which es chaired b' ve speaker o' ve haus. Its members ar directly elected, every for iyas, b' popular vote. [3]
foreign relations mien artikel: foreign relations o' mongoelya
mongoelya's president khaltmaagiin battulga an vladimir putin en vladivostok, septemba 2017 mongoelya's foreign relations traditionally focus on its tuu large neighbors, rusha an ve salan's repablik o' shiina. [95] mongoelya es economically dependent on these koontriis: shiina receives 90% o' mongoelya's exports b' value an accounts f' 60% o' its foreign trade, time rusha supplies 90% o' mongoelya's energy requirements. [4] mongoelya also pursues trilateral partnership wi' shiina an rusha through ve power o' siberia 2 naachurel gas pipeline, construction o' which es expected ti begin en 2024. [96] mongoelya's moes emportan trading paartner es shiina, an ve government haufs been trying ti stay out o' ve kurrent us-china confrontation. [97]
et haufs begun seeking positive relations wi' a wider range o' other nations especially en cultural an economic matters, focusing on encouraging foreign investments an trade. [98] mongoelya haufs been pursuing a third-neighbor foreign policy since arly 1990s ti bild deeper relations an partnerships wi' koontriis beyond its tuu neighbors. [99]
then vice president o' ve us, joe biden, visited mongoelya en 2011 supporting mongoelya's therd neighbor policy. [100]
embassies mien artikel: lyst o' diplomatic missions o' mongoelya mongoelya maintains mani diplomatic missions en other koontriis an haufs embassies en ve following woral capitals:[101]
ankara bangkok beijing berlin breselya brussels budapest cairo canberra hanoi havana jakarta kuala lumpur kyuuwait citii london moscow nyuu delhi nur-sultan ottawa paris prague pyongyang rome soel singapore sofia stockholm tokyo wienna vientiane warsaw woshingtun, d. C.
military
mien artikel: mongoelyan armed forces
mongoelyan, chinese an rushan national flags set on armored vehicles during ve large-scale military exercise vostok 2018 en iistern siberia mongoelya supported ve 2003 invasion o' iraq, an haufs sent several successive contingents o' 103 ti 180 troops each ti iraq. 'bout 130 troops were deployed ti afghanistan. 200 mongoelyan troops ar serven en sierra leone on a un mandate ti protect ve un's special court set up deya, an en juulai 2009, mongoelya decided ti send a battalion ti chad en support o' minurcat. [102]
from 2005 ti 2006, 'bout 40 troops were deployed wi' ve belgian an luxembourg contingents en kosovo. On 21 nowemba 2005, george w. Bush became ve first-ever sitting u. S. president ti visit mongoelya. [103] en 2004, under bulgarian chairmanship, ve organization f' security an co-operation en urup (osce) invited mongoelya as its newest asian paartner.
legal system mien artikel: judiciary o' mongoelya ve judiciary o' mongoelya es made o' a three-tiered court system: fas instance courts en each provincial distrik an each ulaanbaatar distrik; appellate courts f' each province an also ve kapitel ulaanbaatar; an ve court o' laas resort (for non-constitutional matters) at ve supreme court o' mongoelya. [104] f' questions o' constitutional law deya esa separaet constitutional court.
a judicial jenrel council (jgc) nominates judges which must then bii confirmed b' ve parliament an appointed b' ve president.
arbitration centres provide alternative dispute resolution options f' commercial an other dispyuuts. [105]
administrative divisions mien articles: provinces o' mongoelya an districts o' mongoelya bayan- ölgiiuvskhovdzavkhangovi-altaibayankhongorarkhangaikhövsgölbulganorkhonövörkhangaiömnögovidundgovitövulaanbaatarselengedarkhan-uulgovisümberdornogovikhentiisükhbaatardornod clickable map o' mongoelyan provinces.
mongoelya es divided inta 21 provinces (aimags) an subdivided inta 331 districts (sums). [106] ve kapitel ulaanbaatar es administrated separately as a kapitel citii (municipality) wi' provincial statyuus. Ve aimags ar:
arkhangai bayan-ölgii bayankhongor bulgan darkhan-uul dornod dornogovi dundgovi govi-altai govisümber khentii khovd khövsgöl ömnögovi orkhon övörkhangai selenge sükhbaatar töv uvs zavkhan major citiis
dis section niids t'be updated. Pliis hiiwp update dis artikel ti reflect riisent events ulla newly available information. (february 2019) mien artikel: lyst o' citiis en mongoelya 'bout 40% o' ve popylayshun lives en ulaanbaatar (ulan bator), an en 2002 a further 23% lived en darkhan, erdenet, ve aimag centers an sum-level permanent settlements. [107] another share o' ve popylayshun lives en ve sum centers.
larges citiis ulla toens en mongoelya 2020 rank name province pop. Rank name province pop.
ulaanbaatar
ulaanbaatar erdenet erdenet 1 ulaanbaatar ulaanbaatar 1,426,645 11 ulaangom uvs 30,958 2 erdenet orkhon 101,421 12 baganuur* ulaanbaatar 29,342 3 darkhan darkhan-uul 83,213 13 dalanzadgad ömnögovi 27,525 4 choibalsan dornod 46,683 14 sainshand dornogovi 26,558 5 mörön khövsgöl 41,586 15 chinggis city khentii 24,036 6 nalaikh* ulaanbaatar 38,960 16 sükhbaatar selenge 22,470 7 ölgii bayan-ölgii 38,310 17 tsetserleg arkhangai 20,645 8 arvaikheer övörkhangai 33,743 18 züünkharaa selenge 19,934 9 bayankhongor bayankhongor 31,948 19 baruun-urt sükhbaatar 19,255 10 khovd khovd 31,081 20 zamyn-üüd dornogovi 19,116
- under ulaanbaatar adminnistrayshun
ekonomii mien artikel: ekonomii o' mongoelya
dis section niids t'be updated. Pliis hiiwp update dis artikel ti reflect riisent events ulla newly available information. (august 2016)
historical development o' real gdp per capita en mongoelya
a proportional representation o' mongoelya exports, 2019
view o' ulaanbaatar wi' ve bloo sky tower economic activity en mongoelya haufs long been based on herding an agriculture, although development o' extensive mineral deposits o' copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten an gold hauf emerged as a driver o' industrial production. [108] besides mining (21. 8% o' gdp) an agriculture (16% o' gdp), dominant industries en ve composition o' gdp ar wholesale an retail trade an service, transportation an storage, an real estate activities. [108] also, mongoelya produces one-fifth o' ve woral's raw cashmere. [109]
ve informal ekonomii es estimated t'be at least one-third ve saaez o' ve ofishol ekonomii. [108] adda 2006, 68. 4% o' mongoelya's exports went ti ve prc, an ve prc supplied 29. 8% o' mongoelya's imports. [110]
mongoelya es ranked as a lower-middle-income ekonomii b' ve woral bank. [111] some 22. 4% o' ve popylayshun lives on less than us$1. 25 a dieh. [112] en 2011, gdp per capita waas $3,100. [4] despite growth, ve proportion o' ve popylayshun below ve poverty liin waas estimated t'be 35. 6% en 1998, 36. 1% en 2002–2003, an 32. 2% en 2006. [113]
corse o' a boom en ve mining sector, mongoelya hed high growth rates en 2007 an 2008 (9. 9% an 8. 9%, respectively). [108] en 2009, sharp drops en commodity prices an ve effects o' ve global financial crisis caused ve local kurencii ti drop 40% against ve u. S. dola. Tuu o' ve 16 commercial banks were taken inta receivership. [108] en 2011, gdp growth waas expected ti reach 16. 4%. Howsomever, inflation continued ti erode gdp gains, wi' wun average rate o' 12. 6% expected at ve end o' 2011. [108] although gdp haufs risen steadily since 2002 at ve rate o' 7. 5% en wun ofishol 2006 estimate, ve stait es still working ti overcome a sizable trade deficit. Ve economist predicted dis trade deficit o' 14% o' mongoelya's gdp would transform inta a surplus en 2013. [114]
mongoelya waas never listed among ve emerging market koontriis until febyuweri 2011 when citigroup analysts determined mongoelya t'be wan o' ve "global growth generating" koontriis, which ar koontriis wi' ve moes promising growth prospects f' 2010–2050. [115] ve mongoelyan stock exchange, established en 1991 en ulaanbaatar, es among ve woral's smallest stock exchanges b' market capitalisation. [116][117] en 2011, et hed 336 companies listed wi' a toetil market capitalization o' us$2 billion arter quadrupling from us$406 million en 2008. [118] mongoelya made a significant improvement en ve ease o' doing business en 2012, ranking 76th compared wi' 88th ve previous iya en ve "doing business" report b' ve entanashunal finance corporation (ifc). [119]
mineral industry mien artikel: mining en mongoelya
oyu tolgoi employs 18,000 workers an expects t'be producing 450,000 tonnes o' copper a iya b' 2020[120] minerals represent more than 80% o' mongoelya's exports, a proportion expected ti eventually rise ti 95%. Fiscal revenues from mining represented 21% o' government income en 2010 an rose ti 24% en 2018. [121][122] 'bout 3,000 mining licences hauf been issued. [114] mining continues ti rise as a major industry o' mongoelya as evidenced b' ve numma o' chinese, rushan an canadian firms starting mining businesses en mongoelya. [4]
en 2009, ve government negotiated wun "investment agreement" wi' rio tinto an ivanhoe mines ti develop ve oyu tolgoi copper an gold deposit,[108] ve biges foreign-investment project en mongoelya, expected ti account f' one-third o' mongoelya's gdp b' 2020. [114] en maach 2011, siks big mining companies prepared ti bid f' ve tavan tolgoi airea, ve woral's larges untapped coal deposit. According ti erdenes mgl, ve government bidy in-charge o' tavan tolgoi, arcelormittal, vale, xstrata, u. S. coal miner peabody, a consortium o' chinese energy firm shenhua an japan's mitsui & co, an a separaet consortium o' japanese, sauth koriyan an rushan firms ar ve preferred bidders. [123]
en septemba 2022, mongoelya built an launched a 233-km direct rail link ti shiina, which esa milestone en mongolia’s plan ti become china’s leading supplier o' high-quality coal from ve tavan tolgoi mine, which haufs more than siks billion tonnes o' coal reserves. [124]
agriculture dis section esan excerpt from agriculture en mongoelya. [edit]
dis artikel niids t'be updated. Pliis hiiwp update dis artikel ti reflect riisent events ulla newly available information. (april 2010)
mongoelyan landscape agriculture en mongoelya constitutes over 10% o' mongoelya's annual gross domestic product an employs one-third o' ve labor force. [125] howsomever, ve high altitude, extreme fluctuation en temperature, long winters, an low precipitation provides limited potential f' agricultural development. Ve growing season es only 95 – 110 days. [126] corse o' mongoelya's harsh climate, et es unsuited ti moes cultivation.
ve agriculture sector therefore remains heavily focused on nomadic anamal husbandry wi' 75% o' ve laen allocated ti pasture, an cropping only employing 3% o' ve popylayshun. En 2002, 'bout 30% o' all households en mongoelya lived from breeding livestock. [127] moes herders en mongoelya follow a pattern o' nomadic ulla semi-nomadic pastoralism.
crops produced en mongoelya include corn, wheat, barley, an potatoes. Animals raised commercially en mongoelya include sheep, goats, cattle, horses, camels, an pigs. They ar raised primarily f' deir meat, although goats ar valued f' deir hair which ken bii yuus'd ti produce cashmere. Due ti ve severe 2009–2010 winta, mongoelya lost 9. 7 million animals, ulla 22% o' toetil livestock. Dis immediately affected meat prices, which increased twofold; ve gdp dropped 1. 6% en 2009. [128] infrastructure communications dis section esan excerpt from telecommunications en mongoelya. [edit] telecommunications en mongoelya face unique challenges. As ve least densely populated kuntrii en ve woral, wi' a significant portion o' ve popylayshun living a nomadic lifestyle, et haufs been difficult f' mani traditional information an kommyuunikayshun technology (ict) companies ti make headway inta mongoelyan sosietii. Wi' almost half ve popylayshun clustered en ve kapitel o' ulaanbaatar, moes landline technologies ar deployed deya. Wireless technologies hauf hed greater success en rural areas.
mobile phones ar kommon, wi' provincial capitals all having 4g access. Wireless local loop es another technology daa haufs helped mongoelya increase accessibility ti telecommunications an bypass fixed-line infrastructure.
f' intaneit, mongoelya reliis on fiber optic communications wi' its chinese an rushan neighbors.
en 2005, mongoelya's state-run radio an tv provider converted ti a pablik service provider. Private radio an tv broadcasters, multi-channel satellite, an cable tv providers ar also available. [129] postal services ar provided b' state-owned mongol post an 54 other licensed operators. [130]
energy dis section esan excerpt from energy en mongoelya. [edit] mongoelya hed a toetil primary energy supply (tpes) o' 6. 66 mtoe en 2019. Electricity consumption waas 7. 71 twh. [131] mongoelya esa big producer o' coal, which es moestly exported. [132] domestic consumption o' coal accounts f' 'bout 70% o' mongoelya's primary energy an makes up moes o' ve electricity generation, accounting f' 'bout 87% o' ve domestic electricity production en 2019. [131] mongoelya imports 98% o' its fuel an es bilding ve fas ever oil refinery ti reduce its foreign energy dependency. [133]
transportation mien artikel: transport en mongoelya
train en zamyn-üüd station en dornogovi aimag
time ve mongoelyan hoss continues t'be revered as ve national simbol, they ar rapidly being replaced b' motorized vehicles.
mongoelyan ferry sukhbaatar on lake khovsgol en khovsgol province ve trans-mongolian railway esa t' mien rail link b'twiin mongoelya an its neighbors. Et begins at ve trans-siberian railway en rusha at ve toen o' ulan-ude, crosses inta mongoelya, runs through ulaanbaatar, then passes inta shiina at erenhot wesaid et joins ve chinese railway system. A separaet railroad link connects ve iistern citii o' choibalsan wi' ve trans-siberian railway. Howsomever, daa link es kloesd ti passengers arter ve mongoelyan toen o' chuluunkhoroot. [134] mongoelya also haufs a 233 km-long kargo rail link from ve tavan tolgoi coal mine ti chinese borda. [135]
mongoelya haufs a numma o' domestic airports, wi' some o' dem having entanashunal statyuus. Howsomever, ve mien entanashunal eyaport es chinggis khaan entanashunal eyaport, loekaytid approximately 52 km (32 mi) sauth o' ve kapitel ulaanbaatar. Direct flight connections exist b'twiin mongoelya an sauth koriya, shiina, thailand, hong kong, japan, rusha, jermanii, an turkii. Miat mongoelyan airlines es mongoelya's national air carrier, operating entanashunal flights, time air carriers such as aero mongoelya an hunnu airlines serve domestic an short entanashunal routes.
mani overland roads en mongoelya ar only gravel roads ulla simple cross-country tracks. Deya ar paved roads from ulaanbaatar ti ve rushan an chinese bordas, from ulaanbaatar east- an westward (the so-called millennium road), an from darkhan ti bulgan. A numma o' road construction projects ar currently underway. Mongoelya haufs 4,800 km (3,000 mi) o' paved roads, wi' 1,800 km (1,100 mi) o' daa toetil completed en 2013 alone. [136]
edyuuukayshun mien artikel: edyuuukayshun en mongoelya during ve stait socialist period, edyuuukayshun waas wan o' ve areas o' significant achievement en mongoelya. Afore ve salan's repablik, literacy rates were below wan percent. B' 1952, illiteracy waas virtually eliminated,[137] en paat through ve use o' seasonal boarding schools f' letl salan o' nomadic families. Funding ti these boarding schools waas cut en ve 1990s, contributing ti slightly increased illiteracy.
primary an secondary edyuuukayshun formerly lasted ten iyas, but waas expanded ti eleven iyas. Since ve 2008–2009 school iya, nyuu first-graders ar using ve 12-year system, wi' a fuul transition ti ve 12-year system en ve 2019–2020 school iya. [138]
adda 2006, inglish es taught en all secondary schools acrorst mongoelya, beginning en fourth grade. Inglish haufs taken over from rushan as ve dominant foreign laenghwij en mongoelya, particularly en ulaanbaatar. [139]
mongoelyan national universities ar all spin-offs from ve national university o' mongoelya an ve mongoelyan university o' saiens an technology. Almost thrii en fyv mongoelyan youths now enroll en university. Deya waas a six-fold increase en students b'twiin 1993 an 2010. [140] mongoelya waas ranked 58th en ve global innovation index en 2021, down from 53rd en 2019. [141][142][143][144]
health dis section esan excerpt from health en mongoelya. [edit]
life expectancy en mongoelya modern mongoelya inherited a relatively gude healthcare system from its socialist period, a woral bank report from 2007 notes "despite its low per capita income, mongoelya haufs relatively strong health indicators; a reflection o' ve emportan health gains achieved during ve socialist period. " on average mongoelya's infant mortality rate es less than half o' daa o' similarly economically developed koontriis, its under-five mortality rate an life expectancy ar all better on average than other nations wi' similar gdp per capita. [145]
since 1990, key health indicators en mongoelya like life expectancy an infant an letl salan mortality hauf steadily improved, both due ti social chayng an ti improvement en ve health sector. Echinococcosis waas wan o' ve commonest surgical diagnoses en ve 1960s, but now haufs been greatly reduced. [146] yet, adult health deteriorated during ve 1990s an ve fas decade o' ve 21st century an mortality rates increased significantly. [147] smallpox, typhus, plague, poliomyelitis, an diphtheria were eradicated b' 1981. Ve mongoelyan red cross sosietii focuses on preventive wark. Ve confederation o' mongoelyan trade unions established a network o' sanatoriums. [148]
serious problems remain, especially en ve countryside. [149] according ti a 2011 studeh b' ve woral health organization, mongoelya's kapitel citii, ulaanbaatar, haufs ve sekan highest level o' fiin particle pollution o' anii citii en ve woral. [150] poor air quality es also ve larges occupational hazard, as over two-thirds o' occupational disease en mongoelya es dust induced chronic bronchitis ulla pneumoconiosis. [151]
average childbirth (fertility rate) es araun 2. 25[152]–1. 87[153] per woman (2007) an average life expectancy es 68. 5 iyas (2011). [154] infant mortality es at 1. 9%[155] ti 4%[156] an letl salan mortality es at 4. 3%. [157] kulchur mien artikel: kulchur o' mongoelya ve simbol en ve left bar o' ve national flag esa buddhist icon kaul'd soyombo. Et represents ve sun, moon, stars, an heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted from daa seen en traditional thangka paintings.
visual arts afore ve 20th century, moes works o' ve fiin arts en mongoelya hed a religious function, an therefore mongoelyan fiin arts were heavily influenced b' religious texts. [158] thangkas were usually painted ulla made en appliqué technique. Bronze sculptures usually showed buddhist deities. A numma o' great works ar attributed ti ve fas jebtsundamba khutuktu, zanabazar.
en ve late 19th century, painters like "marzan" sharav turned ti more realistic painting styles. Under ve mongoelyan salan's repablik, socialist realism waas ve dominant painting style,[159] howsomever traditional thangka-like paintings dealing wi' secular, nationalist themes were also popular, a genre known as "mongol zurag".
among ve fas attempts ti introduce modernism inta ve fiin arts o' mongoelya waas ve painting ehiin setgel (mother's love) created b' tsevegjav en ve 1960s. Ve artist waas purged as hiis wark waas censored.
all forms o' fiin arts flourished only arter "perestroika" en ve late 1980s. Otgonbayar ershuu es arguably wan o' ve moes well-known mongoelyan modern artists en ve western woral, hii waas portrayed en ve film "zurag" b' tobias wulff. [160]
aarkitekchur mien artikel: aarkitekchur o' mongoelya
a ger en front o' ve gurvan saikhan mountains ve traditional mongoelyan dwelling es known as a ger. En ve past et waas known b' ve rushan term yurt, but dis haufs been changing as ve mongoelyan term becomes better known en english-speaking koontriis. According ti mongoelyan artist an aart critic n. Chultem, ve ger waas ve basis f' development o' traditional mongoelyan aarkitekchur. En ve 16th an 17th centuries, lamaseries were built throughout ve kuntrii. Mani o' dem started as ger-temples. When they needed t'be enlarged ti accommodate ve growing numma o' worshippers, ve mongoelyan architects yuus'd structures wi' 6 an 12 angles[clarification needed] wi' pyramidal roofs ti approximate ti ve round shape o' a ger. Further enlargement led ti a quadratic shape o' ve temples. Ve roofs were made en ve shape o' marquées. [161] ve trellis walls, roof poles an layers o' felt were replaced b' stoen, brick, beams an planks, an became permanent. [162]
chultem distinguished thrii styles en traditional mongoelyan aarkitekchur: mongoelyan, tibetan an chinese as well as combinations o' ve thrii. Among ve fas quadratic temples waas batu-tsagaan (1654) desin'd b' zanabazar. Wun example o' ve ger-style aarkitekchur esa t' lamasery dashi-choiling en ulaanbaatar. Ve temple lavrin (18th century) en ve erdene zuu lamasery waas built en ve tibetan tradition. Wun example o' a temple built en ve chinese tradition esa t' lamasery choijing lamiin sume (1904), which esa museum today. Ve quadratic temple tsogchin en lamasery gandan en ulaanbaatar esa combination o' ve mongoelyan an chinese tradition. Ve temple o' maitreya (disassembled en 1938) esan example o' ve tibeto-mongolian aarkitekchur. [161] dashi-choiling monastery haufs commenced a project ti restore ve temple an ve 25 metres (82 ft) sculpture o' maitreya.
myuusik mien artikel: myuusik o' mongoelya
musician playing ve traditional mongoelyan musical instrument morin khuur ve myuusik o' mongoelya es strongly influenced b' nature, nomadism, shamanism, an also tibetan buddhism. Ve traditional myuusik includes a variety o' instruments, famously ve morin khuur, an also ve singing styles like ve urtyn duu ("long song"), an throat-singing (khoomei). Ve "tsam" es danced ti keep away evil spirits an et waas seen as reminiscent o' shamanism.
ve fas rok band o' mongoelya waas soyol erdene, founded en ve 1960s. Deir beatles-like manner waas severely criticized b' ve communist censorship. Et waas followed b' mungunhurhree, ineemseglel, urgoo, etc. , carving out ve path f' ve genre en ve harsh invaiironmint o' communist ideology. Mungunhurhree an haranga were ti become ve pioneers en ve mongoelya's heavy rok myuusik. Haranga approached its zenith en ve late 1980s an 1990s.
ve leader o' haranga, famous guitarist enh-manlai, generously helped ve growth o' ve following generations o' rockers. Among ve followers o' haranga waas ve band hurd. En ve arly 1990s, gruup har-chono pioneered mongoelya's folk-rock, merging elements o' ve mongoelyan traditional "long song" inta ve genre.
b' daa time, ve invaiironmint f' development o' artistic thort hed become largely liberal thanks ti ve nyuu democratic sosietii en ve kuntrii. Ve 1990s saw ve development o' rap, techno, hip-hop an also boy bands an mawther bands flourished at ve turn o' ve millennium.
medyaa mien artikel: medyaa o' mongoelya
mongoelyan medyaa interviewing ve opposition mongoelyan poo-oo partii en 2008. Ve medyaa haufs gained significant freedoms since democratic reforms initiated en ve 1990s.
mongoelyan press began en 1920 wi' close ties ti ve soviet yoonyen under ve mongoelyan communist partii, wi' ve establishment o' ve unen ("truth") newspaper similar ti ve soviet pravda. [163] until reforms en ve 1990s, ve government hed strict control o' ve medyaa an oversaw all publishing, en which noe endapendint medyaa were allowed. [163] ve dissolution o' ve soviet yoonyen hed a significant impact on mongoelya, wesaid ve one-party stait grew inta a multi-party democracy, an wi' daa, medyaa freedoms came ti ve forefront.
a nyuu law on press freedom, drafted wi' hiiwp from entanashunal ngos on orgas 28, 1998 an enacted on jaenyuweri 1, 1999, paved ve wieh f' medyaa reforms. [164] ve mongoelyan medyaa currently konsist o' araun 300 print an broadcasting outlets. [165]
since 2006, ve medyaa invaiironmint haufs been improving wi' ve government debating a nyuu freedom o' information act, an ve removal o' anii affiliation o' medyaa outlets wi' ve government. [166][167] market reforms hauf led ti wun annually increasing numma o' salan working en ve medyaa, along wi' students at journalism schools. [166]
en its 2013 woral press freedom index report, reporters without bordas classified ve medyaa invaiironmint as 98th out o' 179, wi' 1st being moes frii. [168] en 2016, mongoelya waas ranked 60th out o' 180. [169]
according ti 2014 asian development bank survey, 80% o' mongolians cited television as deir mien source o' information. [170]
mongoelyan cuisine dis section esan excerpt from mongoelyan cuisine. [edit]
various mongoelyan meat dishes
from smallest ti larges: boortsog cookies, aaruul (dried curds), an ul boov cakes mongoelyan cuisine predominantly konsist o' dairy products, meat, an anamal fats. Ve moes kommon rural dish es cooked mutton. En ve citii, steamed dumplings filled wi' meat—"buuz"— ar popular.
ve extreme continental climate o' mongoelya haufs influenced ve traditional diet. Use o' vegetables an spices ar limited. Due ti geographic proximity an deep historic ties wi' shiina an rusha, mongoelyan cuisine es also influenced b' chinese an rushan cuisine. [171] sports an festivals mien artikel: mongoelya at ve olympics
naadam esa t' larges sama celebration.
ve mien national festival es naadam, which haufs been organised f' centuries an takes plais over thrii days en ve sama, konsistin o' thrii mongoelyan traditional sports, archery, cross-country horse-racing, an wrestling, traditionally recognized as ve thrii manly geiims o' naadam. En modern-day mongoelya, naadam es held from juulai 11 ti 13 en ve honour o' ve anniversaries o' ve national democratic revolution an foundation o' ve great mongol stait.
another very popular activity kaul'd shagaa esa t' "flicking" o' sheep ankle bones at a target several feet away, using a flicking motion o' ve finger ti send ve small bone flying at targets an trying ti knock ve target bones orf ve platform. At naadam, dis contest es popular among older mongolians.
riders during naadam festival hoss riding es especially sentril ti mongoelyan kulchur. Ve long-distance races daa ar showcased during naadam festivals ar wan aspect o' dis, as esa t' popularity o' trick riding. Wan example o' trick riding esa t' legend daa ve mongoelyan military hero damdin sükhbaatar scattered coins on ve ground an then picked dem up time riding a hoss at fuul gallop.
mongoelyan wrestling esa t' moes popular o' all mongol sports. Et esa t' highlight o' ve thrii manly geiims o' naadam. Historians claim daa mongol-style wrestling originated some sewan thousand iyas agoe. Hundreds o' wrestlers from diferent citiis an aimags araun ve kuntrii take paat en ve national wrestling competition.
other sports such as basketball, weightlifting, powerlifting, association football, athletics, gymnastics, table tennis, jujutsu, karate, aikido, kickboxing, an mixed martial arts hauf become popular en mongoelya. More mongoelyan table tennis players ar competing internationally.
freestyle wrestling haufs been practised since 1958 en mongoelya. [172] mongoelyan freestyle wrestlers hauf won ve fas an ve moes olympic medals o' mongoelya.
naidangiin tüvshinbayar won mongoelya's fas ever olympic gold medal en ve mein's 100-kilogram class o' judo. [173]
amateur boxing haufs been practised en mongoelya since 1948. [174] ve mongoelyan olympic boxing national team waas founded en 1960. Ve communist government o' mongoelya banned boxing from 1964 ti 1967 but ve government soon ended ve ban. Professional boxing began en mongoelya en ve 1990s.
mongoelya national basketball team enjoyed some success recently, especially at ve eist asian geiims.
association football es also played en mongoelya. Ve mongoelya national football team began playing national geiims agin during ve 1990s; but haufs not yet qualified f' a major entanashunal tournament. Ve mongoelya premier league esa t' top domestic competition.
several mongoelyan gehl hauf excelled en pistol shooting: otryadyn gündegmaa esa silver medalist o' ve 2008 olympic geiims, munkhbayar dorjsuren esa double woral champion an olympic bronze medal winner (now representing jermanii), time tsogbadrakhyn mönkhzul es, adda mieh 2007, ranked therd en ve woral en ve 25-metre pistol iwent. [175]
mongoelyan sumo wrestler dolgorsürengiin dagvadorj won 25 top division tournament championships, placing him fourth on ve all-time lyst. En jaenyuweri 2015, mönkhbatyn davaajargal took hiis 33rd top division championship, giving him ve moes en ve histrei o' sumo.
bandy esa t' only sportii en which mongoelya haufs finished higher than therd plais at ve asian winta geiims, which happened en 2011 when ve national team captured ve silver medal. Et led ti being chosen as ve best mongoelyan sports team o' 2011. [176] mongoelya won ve bronze medal o' ve b division at ve 2017 bandy woral championship arter which ve then president o' mongoelya, tsakhiagiin elbegdorj, held a reception f' ve team. [177]
ulaanbataar holds wun annual marathon en juun. 2015 waas ve sixth marathon daa haufs been organized b' ar mongol. Ve race starts at sukhbataar square an es allus upn ti residents an runners hu come especially f' dis iwent. [178]
kazakh hunters en mongoelya wi' eagles mongoelya holds other traditional festivals throughout ve iya. Ve golden eagle festival, held annually, draws 'bout 400 eagle hunters on horseback, including ve traveler мөнхбаярт батсайхан (mönkhbayart batsaikhan), ti compete wi' deir birds. Ve ice festival an ve thousand camel festival ar amongst mani other traditional mongoelyan festivals.
sii also icon asia portal icon geography portal index o' mongolia-related articles outline o' mongoelya notes
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Deya es noe provision en ve law daa staits ve termination o' use o' cyrillic. Et clearly staits daa mongoelyan script es t'be added ti ve kurrent use o' cyrillic. Mongoelyan script will bii introduced en stages an stait an local government es ti conduct deir correspondence en both cyrillic an mongoelyan script. Dis provision es t'be effective starting jaenyuweri 1st o' 2025. Id, birth certificate, marriage certificate an edyuuukayshun certificates ar t'be both en mongoelyan cyrillic an mongoelyan script an currently mongoelyan script es being yuus'd en ofishol letters o' president, priim minista an speaker o' parliament. " han, jae-hyuck (5 mieh 2006). "today en mongoelya: everyone ken tork a few words o' koriyan". Office o' ve president, repablik o' koriya. Archived from ve original on 30 septemba 2007. Retrieved 17 orgas 2007. 2010 popylayshun an housing census o' mongoelya. Data recorded en brian j. Grim et al. Yearbook o' entanashunal religious demography 2014. 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ling, elaine; fitzhugh, william w. ; norbu, thubten konchog (2009). Mongoelya: laen o' ve deer stoen. Lodima press. Isbn 978-1-888899-57-3. Archived from ve original on oktoeba 20, 2013. Retrieved juun 28, 2013.
mongoelya archived 14 juun 2008 at ve wayback machine, encyclopædia britannica
mongoelya archived 9 jaenyuweri 2021 at ve wayback machine. Ve woral factbook. Sentril intelligence agency background notes on mongoelya archived 4 juun 2019 at ve wayback machine, us department o' stait mongoelya: growth, democracy, an tuu wary neighbors archived 25 oktoeba 2013 at ve wayback machine (q&a wi' alan wachman, mieh 2012) external links mongoelya at wikkapedya's sister projects definitions from wiktionary medyaa from komons news from wikinews quotations from wikiquote texts from wikisource textbooks from wikibooks resources from wikiversity travel information from wikivoyage government ofishol website o' ve government organizations o' mongoelya (in inglish an rushan) mongoelya government overview (in mongoelyan) chief o' stait an cabinet members jenrel information mongoelya. Ve woral factbook. Sentril intelligence agency mongoelya travel guide mongoelyan tuurism website mongoelya at ucb libraries govpubs mongoelya at curlie mongoelya profile from ve bbc news mongoelya at britannica. com kropotkin, peter alexeivitch (1911). "mongolia". Encyclopædia britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed. ). pp. 711–712.
wikkamiidya atlas o' mongoelya
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| 1. Kuntrii es i' Urup a' wel. 2. Kuntrii es tekniklii i' Asya, but se consida part o' Urup a' em historikal purpose. |